Artificial Reef Resources

• A Review of California's Artificial Reefs: To Help Inform Future Development of a Statewide Management Plan (2020)
• StoryMap of A Review of California's Artificial Reefs (2020)
• A Guide to Southern California Artificial Reefs
• Artificial Reef Plan for Sport Fish Enhancement (1990) (PDF)

• National Artificial Reef Plan (as Amended): Guidelines for Siting, Construction, Development, and Assessment of Artificial Reefs (2007) (PDF)
• Update to the ASMFC Profiles of State Artificial Reef Programs and Projects (July 2021) (PDF)
• National Artificial Reef Workshop (June 2016) (PDF) and Workshop Materials
• Office of National Marine Sanctuaries science review of artificial reefs (2012) (PDF)
• Guidelines for Marine Artificial Reef Materials Second Edition (January 2004) (PDF)
• National Guidance: Best Management Practices for Preparing Vessels Intended to Create Artificial Reefs – Federal Register Notice May 12, 2006 (Volume 71 and Number 92) (PDF)
• Policy Statement of the National Marine Sanctuary Program: Artificial Reef Permitting Guidelines (June 2003) (PDF)
• Australia National Artificial Reef Guidelines (2023) (PDF)
• London Convention and Protocol/UNEP Guidelines for the Placement of Artificial Reefs (2009)

• Ambrose, R. F., & Anderson, T. W. (1990). Influence of an artificial reef on the surrounding infaunal community. Marine Biology, 107(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01313240
• Anderson, T. W., Demartini, E. E., & Roberts, D. A. (1989). The Relationship Between Habitat Structure, Body Size and Distribution of Fishes at a Temperate Artificial Reef. Bulletin of Marine Science, 44(2), 681–697. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233598357
• Aseltine-Neilson, D. A., Bernstein, B. B., Palmer-Zwahlen, M. L., Riege, L. E., & Smith, R. W. (1999). COMPARISONS OF TURF COMMUNITIES FROM PENDLETON ARTIFICIAL REEF, TORREY PINES ARTIFICIAL REEF, AND A NATURAL REEF USING MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES (pp. 37–57).
• Bohnsack, J. A., & Sutherland, D. L. (1985). Artificial Reef Research: A Review with Recommendations for Future Priorities. Bulletin of Marine Science, 1(37), 11–39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233528170
• Bortone, S. A., & Otake, S. (2020). Modern Fisheries Engineering. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429328039
• Brochier, T., Brehmer, P., Mbaye, A., Diop, M., Watanuki, N., Terashima, H., Kaplan, D., & Auger, P. (2021). Successful artificial reefs depend on getting the context right due to complex socio-bio-economic interactions. Scientific Reports 2021 11:1, 11(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95454-0
• Carlisle, J. G., Turner, C. H., & Ebert, E. E. (1964). Artificial habitat in the marine environment. California Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin, 124, 1–93. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/99n3p098
• Carr, M., & Hixon, M. (1997). Artificial Reefs: The Importance of Comparisons with Natural Reefs. Fisheries, 22, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8446(1997)022<0028:ARTIOC>2.0.CO;2
• Easton, A., Komyakova, V., & Coughlin, T. (2024). Evaluating ecological risk in artificial habitat failure: A systematic review and risk assessment considering noise and light pollution in the marine environment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 107, 107560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2024.107560
• Grant, J. J., Wilson, K. C., Grover, A., & Togstad, H. A. (1982). Early Development of Pendleton Artificial Reef. Marine Fisheries Review, 44(6–7), 53–60.
• Grove, R. S. (1982). Artificial Reefs as a Resource Management Option for Siting Coastal Power Stations in Southern California. Marine Fisheries Review, 44(6–7), 24–27.
• Heery, E. C., Dafforn, K. A., Smith, J. A., Ushiama, S., & Mayer-Pinto, M. (2018). Not all artificial structures are created equal: Pilings linked to greater ecological and environmental change in sediment communities than seawalls. Marine Environmental Research, 142, 286–294. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.08.012
• Langhamer, O. (2012). Artificial Reef Effect in relation to Offshore Renewable Energy Conversion: State of the Art. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/386713
• Lima, J. S., Zalmon, I. R., & Love, M. (2019). Overview and trends of ecological and socioeconomic research on artificial reefs. Marine Environmental Research, 145, 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MARENVRES.2019.01.010
• Lipcius, R. N., Eggleston, D. B., Fodrie, F. J., van der Meer, J., Rose, K. A., Vasconcelos, R. P., & van de Wolfshaar, K. E. (2019). Modeling quantitative value of habitats for marine and estuarine populations. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6(JUN). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00280
• Nowakowski, A. J., Canty, S. W. J., Bennett, N. J., Cox, C. E., Valdivia, A., Deichmann, J. L., Akre, T. S., Bonilla-Anariba, S. E., Costedoat, S., & McField, M. (2023). Co-benefits of marine protected areas for nature and people. Nature Sustainability 2023 6:10, 6(10), 1210–1218. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01150-4
• Palmer-Zwahlen, M. L., & Aseltine, D. A. (1994). Successional development of the turf community on a quarry rock artificial reef. Bulletin of Marine Science, 55(3), 902–923.
• Paxton, A. B., Steward, D. N., Harrison, Z. H., & Taylor, J. C. (2022). Fitting ecological principles of artificial reefs into the ocean planning puzzle. Ecosphere, 13(2), e3924. https://doi.org/10.1002/ECS2.3924
• Paxton, A. B., Steward, D. N., Mille, K. J., Renchen, J., Harrison, Z. H., Byrum, J. S., Brinton, C., Nelson, A., Simpson, E., Clarke, P. J., LaPorta, C., Barrett, P. D., Rousseau, M., Newton, D. C., Rigby, R. B., Williams, D. T., Shipley, J. B., Murakawa, P., Runde, B. J., … Taylor, J. C. (2024). Artificial reef footprint in the United States ocean. Nature Sustainability 2024 7:2, 7(2), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01258-7
• Pondella, D. J., Claisse, J. T., & Williams, C. M. (2022). Theory, practice, and design criteria for utilizing artificial reefs to increase production of marine fishes. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 983253. https://doi.org/10.3389/FMARS.2022.983253/BIBTEX
• Pondella, D. J., Piacenza, S. E., Claisse, J. T., Williams, C. M., Williams, J. P., Zellmer, A. J., & Caselle, J. E. (2019). Assessing drivers of rocky reef fish biomass density from the Southern California Bight. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 628, 125–140. https://doi.org/10.3354/MEPS13103
• Ramm, L. A., Florisson, J. H., Watts, S. L., Becker, A., & Tweedley, J. R. (2021). Artificial reefs in the Anthropocene: a review of geographical and historical trends in their design, purpose, and monitoring. Bulletin of Marine Science, 97(4), 699–728. https://doi.org/10.5343/bms.2020.0046
• Rouse, S., Porter, J., & Wilding, T. (2020). Artificial reef design affects benthic secondary productivity and provision of functional habitat. Ecology and Evolution, 10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6047
• Ruiz, G. M., Fofonoff, P. W., Steves, B., Foss, S. F., & Shiba, S. N. (2011). Marine invasion history and vector analysis of California: a hotspot for western North America. Diversity and Distributions, 17(2), 362–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1472-4642.2011.00742.X
• Suzdaleva, A., & Beznosov, V. (2021). Artificial Reef: Status, Life Cycle, and Environmental Impact Assessment. Power Technology and Engineering, 55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10749-021-01397-x
• Turner, C. H., Ebert, E. E., & Given, R. R. (1969). Man-Made Reef Ecology. California Department of Fish and Wildlife Fish Bulletin, 146, 1–222. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2s55m47r#main
• Vivier, B., Dauvin, J. C., Navon, M., Rusig, A. M., Mussio, I., Orvain, F., Boutouil, M., & Claquin, P. (2021). Marine artificial reefs, a meta-analysis of their design, objectives and effectiveness. Global Ecology and Conservation, 27, e01538. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GECCO.2021.E01538
• Williams, J. P., Williams, C. M., Pondella, D. J., & Scholz, Z. M. (2022). Rebirth of a reef: As-built description and rapid returns from the Palos Verdes Reef Restoration Project. Frontiers in Marine Science, 9, 1010303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.1010303

In California, artificial reefs are defined in Fish and Game Code §6421(a) as manmade or natural objects intentionally placed in selected areas of the marine environment to duplicate those conditions that induce production of fish and invertebrates on natural reefs and rough bottoms, and that stimulate the growth of kelp or other midwater plant life, which creates natural habitat for those species.

The California legislature passed the California Fisheries Restoration Act of 1985 (Fish and Game Code §§2760 -2765) and established the California Artificial Reef Program (CARP) (Fish and Game Code §§6420 - 6423) to address declines in populations of various California marine fishes that adversely affected the sport and commercial fishing industry. The California legislature built on the National Fisheries Enhancement Act of 1984 and the National Artificial Reef Plan, which were focused on promoting and facilitating responsible and effective efforts to establish artificial reefs. After these laws were enacted, many state resource agencies around the country adopted artificial reef plans and allocated funding, which resulted in a surge of building artificial reefs in the 1980s. The fishing and the recreational diving communities were active in supporting these efforts.

In 1985, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) was identified as the CARP administrator and was directed to further investigate the design and placement of artificial reefs to restore and enhance fishing opportunities and increase production of fishery populations in California. The CARP includes studying existing successful reefs to determine the design, siting and placement criteria needed to construct artificial reefs capable of increasing fish and invertebrate production in the waters of the state. However, CDFW has not been able to fully implement the CARP due to lack of allocated resources.

Learn more about the California Artificial Reef Plan and the history of artificial reefs in California. 

On September 10, 2024, the Ocean Protection Council (OPC) unanimously approved funding for California Sea Grant to develop a CARP Plan in coordination with CDFW and its staff, and OPC staff. The CARP Plan is intended to be a programmatic guidance document that includes the best available science to create a shared understanding of best practices related to materials, design, siting, performance, and monitoring of artificial reefs in California state waters (0-3 nautical miles). The CARP Plan is not constructability guidance, nor a siting plan. All new artificial reef projects will need to undergo environmental review and permitting by the regulatory agencies. The CARP Plan can be used to inform development of an effective artificial reef project.

The CARP Plan will be similar to the National Artificial Reef Plan in providing basic criteria and definitions to ensure a shared understanding of the components needed for successful artificial reef projects. The CARP Plan will include:

• Brief history of artificial reefs in California
• Summary of knowledge regarding artificial reefs in California and globally
• Definitions of the types of artificial reef projects
• General criteria for design, materials, and location
• Siting/connectivity and habitat conversion
• Elements to improve efficacy of various types of artificial reefs, including reefs constructed for species restoration/enhancement, recreational opportunities, multi-benefit projects, and mitigation
• Potential benefits and risks of artificial reefs
• Monitoring recommendations

The CARP Plan will provide a systematic framework to create a shared understanding of the components of well-designed artificial reef projects, which will improve the ability of artificial reef projects to meet their goals. This will also help improve the permitting process through establishing a shared understanding of best practices.

CDFW constructed artificial reefs in California from the 1960s to 1980s with the goal of increasing fish and invertebrate production in waters of the state (more information here). Artificial reef building activities waned significantly in California during the 1990s – 2000s. With no sustained funding to support CDFW's artificial reef work, all development and work on the California Artificial Reef Program essentially ceased in 2001.

Unlike some other state artificial reef programs administrators, CDFW does not currently have a dedicated funding source or dedicated staff to implement the California Artificial Reef Program. Many of the Gulf of Mexico states have state Artificial Reef Programs funded by required payments from the oil and gas industry and many state programs incorporate the conversion of retired oil and gas infrastructure into artificial reefs (aka rigs-to-reefs). Atlantic state artificial reef programs receive funding from a variety of state and federal sources with wide ranging budgets ($0 – $750,000/annually).

There are no plans for CDFW to build future artificial reefs but that may change if it becomes a priority for the state and resources to support the California Artificial Reef Program become available. Artificial reef development in California is not restricted to government entities and there are several examples across California of artificial reef projects developed and funded by non-governmental entities.

There is a host of federal and state agencies involved in permitting artificial reefs in California. Depending on location and prior to construction, artificial reef projects at a minimum require permits from the California Coastal Commission (or Bay Conservation and Development Commission in San Francisco Bay), Regional Water Quality Control Boards, State Lands Commission, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. CDFW consults with state and federal regulators to inform permit conditions but does not issue a permit for artificial reef construction. CDFW may issue a scientific collection permit under its authority through CCR T-14 §650, if the monitoring of an artificial reef project involves the take or possession of wildlife. Other permits from state and federal regulators may also be required. You can learn more about artificial reef permitting at CDFW Artificial Reefs Permitting.

The CARP Plan is not a siting plan. Specific locations for future artificial reefs are not in the scope of the CARP Plan. The CARP Plan scope includes developing best practices for the design, materials, siting, performance and monitoring of “…manmade or natural objects intentionally placed in selected areas of the marine environment…” (Fish and Game Code §6421). The marine environment generally is defined as relating to saltwater areas and includes ocean, coastal, bay and estuary waters.

The California Artificial Reef Program (CARP) includes artificial reefs that are “… manmade or natural objects intentionally placed in selected areas of the marine environment to duplicate those conditions that induce production of fish and invertebrates on natural reefs and rough bottoms, and that stimulate the growth of kelp or other midwater plant life which creates natural habitat for those species (Fish and Game Code §6421).” The CARP Plan will focus on the creation of new habitat versus conversion of existing structures, like oil and gas infrastructure to artificial reefs, which is known as “rigs-to-reefs.” Although these structures have been found to provide some important ecological benefits (Claisse et al. 2014), the platforms were not designed as high quality marine habitat originally and fall outside the definition of artificial reefs in the Fish and Game Code and will not be included in the CARP Plan. You can get more information about rigs-to-reefs along the west coast at the links below.

• A Citizen’s Guide to Offshore Oil and Gas Decommissioning in Federal Waters Off California by The Interagency Decommissioning Working Group (2019)
• Evaluating Alternative for Decommissioning California’s Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms by The Ocean Science Trust (2015)
• Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Rigs-to-Reef FAQs
• Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) Rig-to-Reefs webpage
• California State Lands Commission’s Oil & Gas webpage
• Pamphlets from the 2007 and 2010 Rigs to Reefs Conferences
• Claire Gonzales, Emily Hazelwood, and Amber Sparks, Overview of Rigs to Reefs: Legislation in California and the Gulf of Mexico, 8 LSU J. of Energy L. & Resources (2020)

The best way to receive up to date information on the CARP Plan development process is to sign up for periodic updates via govDelivery. You can also reach staff at the CDFW Marine Region Habitat Conservation Program at ArtificialReefs@wildlife.ca.gov or (831)-682-9249.