Introduction
In California, mountain lions (Puma concolor) have a unique management history among western states. Mountain lions have not been hunted since 1972 due to declining populations. In 1986, they were listed as a game species, though no hunting occurred. In 1990, mountain lions became a specially protected species with the passage of the California Wildlife Protection Act (Proposition 117). Proposition 117 established some exemptions for the take of mountain lions to preserve public safety; protect private property and livestock; and to protect federally listed bighorn sheep populations.
In 2015, CDFW formally established the Mountain Lion Conservation Program to coordinate statewide research, species health, population monitoring, and collaboration with external collaborators.
Species Identification
Size & Appearance
Adult mountain lions have a tawny, tan or slightly reddish color with white underbelly, black tipped muzzle, ears and tail. Mountain lion kittens have brown-blackish spots that begin to fade at 3 months of age. Mountain lions are sometimes mistaken for bobcats or domestic cats (and vice versa). However, mountain lions are much larger animals with longer tails compared to bobcats with their short “bobbed” tails.
| Species |
Sex |
Body Length (with tail) |
Tail Length |
Shoulder Height |
Body Weight |
Tracks |
|
Mountain
Lion
|
Male
|
7-8 feet
|
Up to 36 inches |
30 inches |
120-170 pounds |
Up to 4 inches wide |
| Female |
5-7 feet |
25 inches |
80-110 pounds |
| Bobcat |
Male |
2 – 3.5 feet |
Up to 7 inches |
18-22 inches |
20-35 pounds |
Up to 1.5-2 inches wide |
| Female |
2-3 feet |
17-20 inches |
15-25 pounds |
Lion, Bobcat-Cat Comparsion.
Biology & Ecology
Mountain lions are the second largest cat (in terms of body size) in North America after the jaguar. Mountain lions are considered one subspecies and called different names depending on where you live. People often call them mountain lions in California, cougars across western North America, panthers in Florida, and pumas in Mexico, Central and South America.
- HABITAT: Redwood and mixed forests, coastal brushlands, and mountains. Around 40% of California is considered suitable habitat for mountain lions.
- SPACE USE: Females have territories up to 300 square miles. Males have territories up to 500 square miles that can overlap with several females and will defend their territory from other males.
- VOCALIZATION: Mountain lions can growl, chirp, yowl (“caterwaul”), snarl, and hiss. Mountain lions cannot roar, but they can purr like other small cats.
- REPRODUCTION: Females can have kittens, 2-4 kittens per litter, any time of the year. The average gestation period is 3 months.
Lion kitten.
Behavior & Diet
Mountain lions are solitary and elusive. A group of mountain lions seen together it is not a “pack”, but often, a mother with offspring. Kittens stay with their mother for 18-24 months.
Mountain lion diets mostly consist of large animals such as deer, elk, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, wild pigs, even feral horses and burros. They will alter their behavior in response to local conditions, prey availability, and competition for limited resources. They may opportunistically hunt other animals including poultry, small livestock, or pets.
Mountain lions are ambush predators that rely on the element of surprise while hunting. Signs of predation by a mountain lion:
- Bite marks to back of neck or skull.
- Fur plucked cleanly in tufts—fur removed before feeding.
- Drag marks leading away from the kill site to a more secluded area
- Carcass covered with dirt, vegetation, or snow to hide it from scavengers (“cache” site).
Species Health
Disease and Rodenticide Surveillance
CDFW conducts disease and rodenticide surveillance statewide to better understand mountain lion population and species health. CDFW staff are specialty trained to collect biological samples from live animals, such as blood, tissue, saliva, scat (feces), and hair. as well as to perform postmortem examinations (necropsies) on dead animals.
CDFW's Wildlife Health Lab along with our partner laboratories (California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory and San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance) perform postmortem examinations (necropsies) on dead mountain lions to determine causes of death or illness. Biological samples are used to study diseases of conservation concern and emerging diseases.
Genetic Health & Connectivity
CDFW works to increase our knowledge of mountain lion population structure, genetic diversity, landscape use and barriers to movement, and species response to environmental changes. Roads are a major barrier for wildlife to move between areas of suitable habitat. More research is needed to identify where wildlife crossing structures—such as overpasses or underpasses—can be built to improve connectivity between habitats. The dense network of roads around and within cities limits the ability of mountain lions to safely disperse to new areas which reduces gene flow and can increase inbreeding risks.
In 2020, the Fish and Game Commission listed mountain lions as a candidate species under the California Endangered Species Act within a proposed evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) in the central coast and southern California. CDFW is completing a species status review within the proposed ESU.
Wildlife Rehabilitation
CDFW may respond in the field to orphaned, injured, or sick mountain lions to protect animal welfare, native wildlife, human health and safety. CDFW works with agency partners and permitted wildlife rehabilitation facilities with specialty rehabilitation authorization (large carnivores). Animals are assessed on a case-by-case basis to determine the most appropriate option. Depredation and public safety wildlife are not candidates for rehabilitation or captive placement.
CDFW staff collect and analyze data to assess the outcome of these efforts and to inform the best practices, policy, and guidelines. Learn more about California Native Wildlife Rehabilitation.
Human-Mountain Lion Interactions
Human population growth along the urban/wildland interface has also resulted in small land parcels that often contain pets, poultry, and livestock. These factors can lead to potential conflict. A person, their employee or agent, whose livestock or pets have been injured or killed by a mountain lion (depredation) may report it to CDFW and request a depredation permit to “take” the offending animal pursuant to Fish and Game Code Section 4802. CDFW uses a deliberative stepwise process for reported depredation and prioritizes non-lethal approaches, as feasible. Permitholders must report mountain lion take to CDFW, even if no animals were taken under a depredation permit.
CDFW collects and manages all mountain lion depredation data, including an annual mountain lion depredation necropsy report to the Fish and Game Commission and mountain lion depredation summary tables. Data may be subject to change as new information becomes available. In some years, more animals were reported as being taken than the number of permits issued (e.g., multiple mountain lions could be taken on a single permit prior to 2013).
IMPORTANT: Reporting errors may make the data unreliable for identifying trends or making geographical comparisons without using a peer-approved scientific model that accounts for these inconsistencies.
As communities expand into wildland areas, wildlife sightings and interactions between people and mountain lions have increased. Mountain lions attacks on humans are rare. Since 1890, there have been six known fatal human attacks by mountain lions in California. If a mountain lion is declared a public safety threat, CDFW and local law enforcement work quickly to remove any threat. A mountain lion that does not pose an imminent threat to public safety is deemed a 'no harm-no foul' animal. CDFW staff work to encourage ‘no harm-no foul’ animals to return to the nearest suitable habitat using various methods that may include hazing or capture and relocation.
Lion Under House.
Statewide Program
CDFW Research
CDFW conducts research focused on mountain lion biologiy, ecology, conservation and management. Research priorities include: habitat connectivity, species interactions, livestock depredation, genetics, health and disease monitoring, and human dimensions of mountain lionns.
Mountain Lion – Wolf - Prey Spatiotemporal Interactions
- Project Status: In Progress (2025- Present)
- Location: Nevada, Sierra, Plumas, Lassen and Modoc counties
- Goal: The study will investigate spatio-temporal interactions of co-occurring large carnivores and prey species. Data gained will increase understanding of how wolves may alter mountain lion space use, movement, prey selection, and survival and mortality through various interactions and competition for resources.
Mountain Lion Eco-Physiology
- Project Status: In Progress (2025- Present)
- Location: Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, Monterey, and San Benito counties
- Goal: This study will use biologging devices to monitor the physiology of mountain lions remotely and in real-time to better understand how they respond to ecological pressures and human interactions. Data gained can increase our understanding of mountain lion ecology and resilience on the central coast of California.
Mountain Lion Occurrence in Southeastern California
- Project Status: In Progress (2025-Present)
- Location: Inyo, San Bernadino, Riverside, Imperial counties
- Goal: This study will examine non-invasive occurrence data and GPS collar data in remote areas of California. Data gained will increase understanding of mountain lion ecology and how populations may relate to populations in the eastern Sierra Nevada, Southern California, Baja California, and in data deficient areas.
A Framework to Estimating Population Abundance Across California
- Project Status: In Progress (2017-Present)\
- Research Partners: CDFW, UC Berkley, UC Santa Cruz, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, UC Davis, Rogue Detection Teams, Institute for Wildlife Studies, National Park Service, Integral Ecology Research, True Wild-Audubon Canyon Ranch, University of Nebraska.
- Location: Statewide
- Goal: This study uses genetic data collected from scat surveys (2017-2022) and GPS collar data to build a new spatially explicit framework for mountain lions in California. Data gained will increase understanding of population abundance across various ecosystems.
Mountain Lion Connectivity on the Central Coast
- Project Status: In Progress (2022-Present)
- Research Partners: CDFW, UC Davis, Santa Cruz Land Trust, UC Santa Cruz, Santa Lucia Conservancy
- Location: Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo counties
- Goal: This study will examine ecology, habitat connectivity, gene flow across the landscape of the Central Coast, which includes the Highway 101 corridor, the Santa Lucia, Gabilan and Diablo Mountain Ranges. Data gained will increase understanding of the road ecology of mountain lions.
Predator-Prey Dynamics in the Eastern Sierra
- Project Status: In Progress (1979-Present)
- Research Partners: CDFW, Utah State University, and University of Wyoming
- Location: Inyo and Mono Counties
- Goal: This project monitors mountain lion populations to monitor predation risks to Sierra bighorn; provide Sierra bighorn herds enough protection to ensure recovery; and relocate and remove bighorn depredating lions. Data gained will increase understanding of predator-prey interactions between these species
External Research
Mountain Lion Tree.
Prospective Researchers
Prospective external researchers or entities interested in conducting mountain lion applied or theoretical research are encouraged to email Dr. Jason Lombardi, Statewide Large Carnivore Research Coordinator at mtnlionprogram@wildlife.ca.gov. Provide a one-page summary of research questions and objectives.